The Public Health Act (1875), Section 276 allows Rural District Councils to obtain the power to light roads or delegate their lighting powers to the Parish Councils in their area.

Other:
G. H. Wilson presents a paper to the Association Of Lighting Engineers introducing sinusoidal diagrams.

Lanterns:
As sodium lanterns were considered to have less glare than mercury, early lanterns were open with little more than simple reflectors (the so-called 'seagull-reflectors').

A cut-off lantern was developed (the Wardle Liverpool) which utilised mirror reflectors. It required suspending over the centre of the carriageway.

There are 2.4 million vehicles licensed in the UK. Road casualties at 99 per 1000 vehicles.

Lanterns:
REVO introduce Progress (250-400W MA/V).
Sugg light the Great West Road in London with Rochester Gas Lamps.
Parkinson introduce Maxill gas lamp.
The South Metropolitan Gas Company introduce the Supervia Gas Lamp to light the streets of Wandsworth. It used thin flat mantles instead of cylinderical ones.
Oldham lit with 150W sodium lamps.
400W Osira lamps in Tunbridge Wells lanterns (GEC) used to light Richmond.
Other areas to use Osira lamps are: Newport, Reading, Tunbridge Wells, Lewisham, Lambet and Norwich.
The original Purley Way installation is replaced and increased with 235 150W Philora sodium lamps in the Wardle Liverpool fitting. The lanterns are suspended centrally on wires.

Other:
The APLE publish the first issue of Public Lighting.
The APLE hold their conference in Cheltenham.

10,000 MA lamps are already in use.

Columns:
Stanton start production of spun concrete columns.

Other:
In August, the MOT publish the final report on street lighting. As well as main roads, side roads and junctions are considered.

Recommendation For The Lighting Of Traffic Routes (Group "A")

1. Mounting Height. To centre of light source, 25 ft.
2. Spacing. Generally not greater than 150 ft., but under occasional span may be as much as 180 ft. Where economically possible, spacing at 120 ft. may be adopted. For cut-off lighting, a figure substantially below 150 ft. is required.
3. Overhang. Maximum distance between the two rows should not exceed 30 ft. Maximum overhang of 6 ft. This is to allow the lighting of kerb, pavements and adjoining property.
4. Amount Of Light. For a carriageway of not more than 40 ft. in width, luminous output per 100 ft. linear of road should be between 3,000 and 8000 lumens.
5. Distribution Of Light. Available light should produce the maximum contrast between brightness of the object to be used, and its background.
6. Glare. With non-axial distribution, ratio of peak candle-power to the average of the values in all directions downward from the source and lying between 30 and 45 from the vertical should not exceed 6. With axial distribution, the ratio should not exceed 5.
7. Siting Of Columns. Single side lighting should be avoided except on bends and central suspension.

Recommendation For The Lighting Of Group "B" Roads (Non Traffic Routes)
Owing to wide variations that exist for these roads, general guidelines rather than specific guidelines are given.

1. Mounting Height. Between 13 ft. and 15 ft.
2. Spacing. Not greater than 120 ft, with maximum of 150 ft. in exceptional cases.
   Where economically possible, spacing at 100 ft. should be adopted.
3. Amount Of Light. Between 600 and 2500 lumens per 100 ft. linear of road.
4. Distribution Of Light. As Group 'A'.
5. Glare. For Non-Axial fittings, the ratio should not exceed 4.
   With axial distribution, the figure should not exceed 3.
6. Siting Of Columns. Staggered system recommended, with special care at junctions and intersections.

The APLE hold their annual conference in Folkestone.

Other:
Just before The Second World War, the chief form of illumination in the City Of London was the arc lamp.
Leamington Spa was lit entirely by gas; they were just introducing high pressure gas lamps.
Defence Regulation 56A (1939) is introduced; it limits the capital available for new street lighting. Schemes require the sanction of the MOT and Civil Aviation Authority.

Lanterns:
Metrovick introduce Ealing and Aldwych lanterns
REVO introduce C9777 (sodium cut-off), C10735 (sodium semi-cut-off), C10766 (mercury semi-cut-off) and C10724 (ornamental).

Other:
Dim-out lighting is being used in many cities.
All manufacturers were gearing up to providing new lanterns and services.
Leamington Spa switches back on its gas lighting, thanks to sterling efforts by the Gas Undertaking, but the decision is made to convert them to electricity.

APLE celebrates its twenty-first birthday.

Over three million motor vehicles are licensed.

The first fluorescent street lighting scheme is installed in Eglington Street, Dublin in August. Semi-trough reflectors are used.

Other:
British Standard 1308 published: Reinforced Concrete Street Lighting Columns.
Lantern and column design examined by the Scottish and English Royal Fine Arts Commission on behalf of the MOT. For MOT grant schemes, only lanterns and columns 'passed' may be used. (This activity is later taken over by the Council Of Industrial Design).
The use of steel is restricted, so concrete columns become popular.
Minister of Transport becomes the Central Authority responsible for street lighting.

BTH light Rugby High Street with the second installation of fluorescent street lighting in August (Dublin was the first the previous year). This time, scientifically designed lanterns are used.

Old Bond Street becomes the third street to be lit with fluorescent, with an installation installed on the 1st September.

APLE hold their conference in London where a paper on fluorescent lighting was given and equipment was demonstrated. It was feared that maintenance costs would be high, as would the cost of the lanterns.
It was after seeing this exhibition that the lighting engineer of Leamington Spa decided to trial fluorescent lighting.

The annual cost of gas starts to increase. Some authorities (e.g. Northampton) abandon gas for electricity on economic grounds.

Other:
British Standards Code Of Practise (BSCP) 1004 Part One: "Street Lighting Part I - Traffic Routes" published. It refined the MOT Report for Group 'A' roads.
British Standard 1840 published: Tubular Steet Columns for Street Lighting. Four mounting heights are given: 30', 25', 15' and 13'. Tubes should be welded or seamless. Basic requirements for strength and deflection are stated.
British Standard 161 (1940) modified.
A British Standard for tubular fluorescent tubes is published (might be BS 1853).
The 60W GLS bulb was decreased in size to the same size as the 40W GLS.

Other:
There are 650,000 gas lighting units installed in the UK.
Aspec are marketing the Kingsland K1 and K3 time switches.
Automatic Light Controling Ltd are marketing the Gunfire controller and celebrating 50 years.
Automatic Telephone and Electric Co. Ltd. introduce new control switch (type 46) especially designed for street lighting.
Automatic Telephone and Electric Co. Ltd. exhibit their Rythmatic ripple control system. An installation is planned to control 20,000 street lights. The system caters for "All-Night", "Half-Night" and "Prior-Dawn."
Automatic Telephone and Electric Co. Ltd. Rythmatic control system controls 426 lanterns in central London.
British, Foreign and Colonail Automatic Light Controlling Co. Ltd are marketing their Gunfire controller.
BTH introduce new phosphors into their MBF/V lamps. This eliminates the colour distortion.
Concrete Utilities marketing the Avenue 3D column.
Horstmann celebrating producing 1,500,000 times switches. They exhibit the Y switch which has 12 hours spring reserve.
Metropolitan Gas Meters Ltd are marketing the Duplex time switch.
ICI experiment with acrylic plastics for street lighting use.
ICI design refractor system for Siemen's City Of London lantern.
Philips have installed over sixty miles of sodium lighting in the city of Liverpool.
Poles Limited exhibit their Adastra columns, approved by the Council Of Industrial design. The Beta column was shown for the first time.
Sangamo Weston market the SS (synchronous time switch) and SSC (synchronous time switch with solar dial). Seeboard (South-Eastern Electricity Board) experiment with high mounted street light units.
Standard Telephone And Cables Limited introduce DC Bias system in Southampton.
Standard Telephone And Cables Limited are marketing the DC Bias Control System.
Stanton are marketing the 8D, 8F column. The Council of Industrial Design have approved a wide range of their columns.
Stewarts And Lloyds are marketing the Gb. 503, Gb. 508, Gb. 557 and Gb. 583.
Venner marketing Half-Night Control (MSDC) time-switch for fluorescent lanterns.
Venner are marketing the TJSSP time-switch (with nine hours spring reserve).

The APLE conference was held in Liverpool.
The APLE start work on their Diploma scheme.
Regional sections of the APLE are being founded. The Scottish and Lancashire & Yorksire Sections are already formed and having meetings. The Midlands Section holds its inaugral meeting this year.

The tubular 125W MBF/U is exhibited at the conference for the first time. The bulb had been available in Europe for some years previous.

The trends since the Second World War were:

• Larger sizes of discharge lamp were used, disposed horizontally in enclosed lanterns, to give broad-beam distribution.
• Extension of the use of sodium lamps for main road lighting.
• Fluorescent lanterns introduced in city streets and town centres.
• Group-B roads tend to toatally enclosed lanterns with 100 GLS lamps.
• Post-top lanterns gradually make headway, using fluorescent tubes, normally decorative.
• Perspex is used for enclosing bowls, refractor plates and the lantern body itself. Tubular vertical refractors are now being made for smaller sizes of filament lamp, although currently only of symmetrical distribution.
• Steel is in short supply, so concrete columns are installed in large numbers.

• Increasing scrutiny by the Council Of Industrial Design
• New town developments. (In one case a column was selected, and manufacturers were asked to design a lantern for it).
• Architects have specified entire column and lanterns combos (leading to post-top mushroom designs).
• Decorative post-top fluorescent lanterns are appearing, opalised on one side of the bowl.
• Swan neck brackets are considered ugly.

The damage on highways due to accidents and insurance claims was estimated at £150 million per annum.

Accident statistics showed:

• More that 95% of all road accidents occurred between 7AM and midnight.
• Two and a half times as many adult pedestrians were killed an hour at night as an hour during the day.
• Almost twice as many motor drivers were killed an hour at night as an hour durin the day.
• Almost twice as many adult pedestrians were seriously injured an hour at night as during the day.

Over five million motor vehicles are licensed.

In Belgium, it had become the practise to tilt fluorescent lanterns at 15^o. It was thought that the tilt lit the centre of the road better. The practise started to appear in the UK; for no other reason than it was the continental way of doing things.

The APLE hold their conference in Eastbourne.
Members of the Road Research Laboratory give a paper on road surface characteristcs.

The new BS 161 standards give rise for concerns in lanterns e.g. temperature effects and effects on light distribution.

Some notes by Waldram on street lighting:

• Making the road surface bright
  Shortage of money means we make "a little go a long way". This must not be taken too far; a poorly lighted street may be more dangerous than an unlighted one.
  Silhouette lighting: most convenient, safest, least expensive way of revealing objects.
  Single lantern, mounted on column, produces a bright patch on road surface. Size, shape and brightness depends on nature of road surface, light distribution of lantern and mounting height.
  Important facts about the patch:
  
  • Lies between the observer and the foot of the column. Never extends beyond the foot.
  • For cut-off distribution (maximum intensity 75°, no light emitted above 80°), patch will be ellipse shaped with long axis across road.
  • For non-cut-off distribution (maximum intensity 80° appreciable light emitted to horizontal), patch will be "T" shaped with tail extending along road to observer.
  • Luminance of patch very dependent on the reflector factor of the road at glancing angles of incidence and view.
  
  
• Spacing And Arrangement Of Lanterns
  
  • Main Roads
    Cut-off lantern mounted 8M high over kerb will light road 10M wide, kerb to kerb. Therefore central suspension of single line of lanterns at 30M spacing is satisfactory. Gives adequate road brightness; freedom from glare; safe and pleasant driving conditions. However, most costly and less flexible than non-cut-off.
    Non-cut-off lantern, patch width is less. Preferred arrangement, mount lanterns on columns kerb-side, at 40M spacing (50M max) in staggered arrangement. Larger spacing possible because of longer bright patches. Arrangement of lanterns places patches side-by-side so merge to creat uniform path of light. Brightness of the road surface high, but so is dazzle.
    Lanterns placed on outer kerb around bends; use siting guage to determine locations so patches merge.
    Layout of lanterns for non-cut-off requires skill and ingenuity.
    Dual carriageways: can use lanterns emitting light towards the traffic (uni-directional), therefore reducing wattage of lanterns by half. Or mount pairs of cut-off lanterns on central columns.
  • City Streets
    Amenities of the neighbourhood should be preserved. Vertical lanterns are good as they emit much light above the horizontal to light buildings and improve general appearance.
    For crowded streets and squares, bright road surfaces are less important so lanterns should be spaced more closely to achieve a higher direct illumination.
    
  • Side Roads
    To reduce cost, lanterns at 200W or less are used; mounted 3-5M high; spaced at 40-50M.
    Light distribution similar to main road non-cut-off.
    Aim is not to light the road for the benefit of the motorist - but for the pedestrian and general amenity.
    Lanterns should be easy to maintain, attractive, of low brightness and proof against small boys.
  
  
• Choice Of Light Source
  Made on personal preference on colour and comparative costs.
  GLS: relatively cheap to install, expensive to operate.
  MCF: cheap to operate, costly to install (gear, large columns, large lanterns).
  Most new main road installations in the UK are MB or SO. No experimental evidence has been published to support a preference (although recently determined that MB more glaring than SO - but not conclusive).

• Lantern Design
  Must fulfil purpose for 10 to 20 years.
  Must be easy to maintain.
  Adjustments - such as focusing devices - should be as few as possible.
  All parts should be robust.
  Design should not be sensitive to manufacturing tolerances.
  • Optical Design
    Reflector systems must be made to greater tolerances than refractor systems.
    Light control should be by main controlling system and an auxiliary system.
    Optical system determined by light distribution required e.g. cut-off achieved by specular reflectors.
    Refractors and reflectors can be used equally for non-cut-off systems. However refractors prefered because (a) less sensitive to manufacturing tolerances (b) more freedom for the design (c) glass and acrylic plastic more stable and corrosion resistant.
    
  • Mechanical Design
    Should be robust and simple.
    Use die-cast aluminium, pressed glass or platic refractors for high resistance to corrosion.
    Re-paint as soon as undercoat shows.
    Keep moving parts greased.
    Lantern constructed from unsuitable materials may be cheap to purchase but costly to maintain.
    The use of Perspex has allowed large lanterns to be constructed, and because it can be welded to itself, refractor plates can be attached with the prismatic surfaces completely concealed.
    

• Lantern Testing
  Performance over years can be forecast using laboratory testing.
  
  • Photometry
    Use a photometer to measure the intensity in candelas over a range of angles.
    Results are plotted as lines of equal intensity (Isocandle Diagram)
    The performance of the lantern can be estimated from this diagram.
    
  • Durability Tests
    Forced tests for resistance to corrosion are not normally reliable.
    Test stations are set up in different places and samples or complete lanterns exposed.
    Corrosion may vary from place to place.
    Dirt forms the centre of attack.
    Exposure tests include combinations of metals, painting, treatments, greases.
  • Vibration Tests
    Most lanterns suffer from vibration (severe case of 15cms at frequency of 200 per minute observed).
    Therefore lanterns tested on a shaking machine.
    Frequency and amplitude can be adjusted; tests run for 100 hours (equivalent to several years service).
    
  • Thermal Tests
    Thermal tests take the greatest amount of effort: glass or Perspex, lamp cap and leads must not overheat, the lamp must start and operate in all weather conditions.
    Temperature measurements made in enclosure with double walls by thermocouples.
    Schlieren technique used to study heat streams around a lantern.
    Weaterproofing tested with a water spray test; proves water tightness and ability of glassware to withstand thermal shock.

• Night-time road journeys result in much higher proportions of deaths and serious injuries than day-time journeys.
• Pedestrians suffer very heavily for inadequate street lighting: with a night-time death rate two or three times that by day.
• Roads are three times dangerous by night as by day to each road user.
• The continuing increase in vehicular traffic is being reflected in a disproportionate increase in night time casulaties
• The major cause of the serious night-time accident situation is street lighting, whose improvement has not kept pace with the increase in road traffic.

Defence Regulation 56A (1939) which limited the capital available for new street lighting is finally lifted.

Aberdeen's Union and Castle Street are relit using cold-cathode wall and pole mounted vertical fluorescent lamps designed by the GEC.

Some notes from Charles Winning of Stewarts and Lloyds:

• Introduction
  Steel tubes have been demanded for over 50 years.
  In early parts of century, wrought iron or steel available. Now only use steel.
  Prior to the First World War, cast iron columns of low mounting heights were in general use.
  With the advent of fast moving and heavy motor traffic, more adequate street lighting was necessary, so mounting heights were increased. Steel prefered over cast iron as it doesn't fracture on impact.
  Modern columns covered by BS 1840 (1952).

• Construction
  1. Sectional Column: Join lengths of tube of different sizes.
  2. Stepped Column: One length of tube reduced, or stepped down, by drawing through dies.
  3. Combination: Sectional base section (for control gear) and stepped shaft portion.

• Design
  Council Of Industrial Design approve designs for Group A roads (needed to qualify for an MOT grant).
  CoID also act as advisory body on questions of aesthetic design.
  CoID do not deal with Group B.

• Standard Columns
  Columns standardized as per BS 1840.
  Bracket lengths are not standardized - outreaches vary widely.

• Column Features
  1. Base Section: Made to minimum standard size as agreed with gear manufacturers.
  2. Root: Can be made straight or cranked (to avoid other services).
  3. Base Ornamentation: MOT opposed to use of added ornamental parts. CoID will not approve them. Ornamentation causes corrosion. Most councils have smashed off cast iron ornamentation from existing columns (collars, coat-of-arms etc.)

• Shaft Section
  Ususally stepped down.
  Larger diameters can be used if double fluorscent lanterns to be used.
  Available as plain or fluted.

• Bracket Arms
  Fabricated from steel tubes.
  There are three types:
  1. Straight tubular arm supported by tierods and clips. Bracket arm is crewed into a half coupler welded onto the pole.
  2. Straight and curved tubular arms, with thin plate on underside to improve appearance. Welded to a tubular sleeve which fits over pole top. Sleeve held in position by three Allen screws.
  3. Bracket arm in form of single bent tube. Lower end has connector sleeve welded on. Fits over pole top. Held in position by three Allen screws.
  Poles can support outreaches up to 15'. When outreach exceeds 15', some form of side bracing is required.

• Columns For Large Lanterns (Fluorescent)
  Design of the bracket arm dependent upon the make of the lantern.
  Some form of bracing against side wind load is desirable.
  
• Performance
  As per BS 1840 (1952)

• Impact
  Danger to anyone in vicinity of struck column is extremely slight.
  Steel columns neither break nor disintegrate on impact but merely bend.

• Surface Protection
  To prevent corrosion, two forms of surface protection are used:
  1. Paint
  2. Metallic Coatings (usually zinc in the form of hot dip galvanising).

• Advantages Of Steel
  1. Withstand fairly rough treatment.
  2. Do not break or fracture under shock.
  3. Slender and comparatively light for the strength provided.
  4. No real erection problem.
  5. Strength can be determined fairly accurately.
  6. Base section just sufficient to house electrical gear.
  7. Painted to suit any colour scheme.
  8. Approved standard designs in accordance wtih BS 1840 are of sound design with simple grace.

Number of miles of road having street lighting:

• 23,100 miles: Tungsten filament (much is below standard)
• 20,000 miles: Gas
• 3,060 miles: Mercury vapour discharge
• 1,570 miles: Sodium discharge
• 250 miles: Fluorescent

Regulation 56A of the Defence (General) Regulations 1939 lifted in November. This limited new lighting schemes during the war and immediate post-war years.

The APLE hold their annual conference in Folkestone.
J M Waldram is inducted as APLE president: the first time someone associated with research becomes president.
The South Western section meets for the first time.

Ediswan SSA/1 street lighting lanterns installed in Queensferry Road, Dunfermline.
Crompton Corona II lanterns on Concrete Utilities 3DNX columns installed on the A13 at Pitsea and Vange (now Basildon).
REVO and Stewarts & Lloyds provide lanterns and columns for the relighting of the A1 through Stamford. This includes 15 lanterns of "facade" type lighting (fluorescent, 80W, 2-tubes) with the lanterns parallel with the axis of the road. This is the first time instances of this type of lantern have been used to light a trunk road.
340 REVO cut-off sodium lanterns (C13660), suspended in pairs from steel catenary wires, supported by 25 ft. steel columns, erected to light the Birmingham-Wolverhamton new road. It is claimed to be some of the best street lighting in the country.
REVO cut-off sodium lanterns (C13660) used again, this time suspended singley from catenary wires, along Burgess Road, Southampton.
The GEC supply VHF radio receivers for tower wagons and maintenance vans belonging to the Newcastle Corporation. This allows direct two-way communication with the control facility.
The GEC complete an installation in Blackburn which includes 400W MBF/U lamps.
Bright Son & Co start a "hospital" for electric time switches and gas controllers.
BTH install 140 sodium street lighting lanterns on the main roads of Salford. Sodium enclosed lanterns on Concrete Utilities Avenue 3D columns at 25 ft. were used.
Lighting continues to be upgraded in Leeds with Crompton Corona II lanterns (SG305EX) lanterns being installed on existing traction poles.
Siemens, REVO and Poles Ltd win the contract to supply street lighting to Kuiwait.
Siemens design the Orton lantern (60W SO/H) with "Birmabright" reflector for Midsomer Morton. 300 are installed.
183 all-perspex Metrovick SO-50 lanterns installed at Grangemouth, with plans to install more. 31 Gower lanterns installed by the firm within the Grangemouth Refinery.
GEC provide 39 Z9425 lanterns, mounted on Macfarlands Limited columns, installed on the Northam Bridge, Southampton.

There are 6.4 million vehicles licensed in the UK. Road casualties at 41 per 1000 vehicles.

Lanterns:
A C Ford are advertising their products for Group A and B roads.
Atlas have introduced the new Beta Two lantern.
The GEC market the Plastifractor lantern with its one-piece injection moulded refractor bowl.
Falks advertise the Fulmar I.
Holophane advertise the Side Of House lantern.
Metropolitan-Vickers continue to advertise their lanterns.
Phosco are marketing the Phosware SO140 enclosed sodium lantern.
Siemens Kuwait is being marketed with the Court, Carpenter, Crawley and Coventry lanterns.
Wardle market the Dielikon plastic refractor.

Other:
Automatic Light Controlling Co. Ltd. are marketing the Gunfire controller and a repair service.
Concrete Utilities suggest the painting of metal columns is a waste of rate players money.
Horstmann are marketing their gas and electric time switches.
Metropolitan Gas Meters Ltd now also offer a repair service for gas controllers and time switches.
Poles Limited are marketing their Adastra columns.
Stanton are marketing the 8K column approved by the Council of Industrial Design.
Standard Telephone and Cables Limited are advertising their DC Bias Control Systems.
Stewarts And Lloyds are offering their new catalogue.
Venner are advertising time switches.

British Standards Code Of Practise (BSCP) 1004 Part Two published which refined the MOT Report for Group 'B' roads.

Northampton's lighting engineers complete 75% of their relighting plan. This is triumphed by the EDA.
Chislehurst/Sidcups main roads relit with BTH Amber lanterns and BTH Diadem lanterns (High Streets).
REVO Sol-Etern selected to light main roads in the City Of Westminster.

Government recognise the roads are inadequate to deal with modern traffic: are carrying on a programme of road improvements with priority to the elimination of black spots.
Government seeks to introduce a system of compulsory testing of vehicles under the new Road Traffic Bill.
Vast majority of accidents are due to human error of judgement.

Some notes on Venner time-switches by W. A. Devon:

• Clock types:
  • 14-day hand-wound movement
    Advantange: Freedom from mains variations
    Advantange: No need for mains supply
    Disadvantage: Fortnightly visits required to rewind it

  • Synchronous Motor
    Cheapest and most popular
    Advantage: Can be left almost indefinintely
    Disadvantage: Affected by power cuts

  • Synchronous Clock With Spring Reserve
    A spring-driven clock maintained full wound by a motor drive.
    In the event of a power cut, the spring reserve takes over.
    Disadvantage: Still requires visits to adjust for natural losing or gaining rate of the escapement.

• Sodium street lighting requires a modification to the solar curve calculations to allow 15 minutes lighting up time.
• Double circuit switching allows multiple tubes in fluorescent lanterns to be individually controlled. This allows for reduced lighting levels afer midnight.
• Multi-Switching (known as the G.P. switch) allows many lighting units to be controlled and switched at different times. Used for the lighting of flats.
• Selective Switching also uses a day selector dial which allows for lighting not to be used as weekends.